Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Architecture - Essay Example The Tama Art University Library was designed by Toyo Ito. According to Bognar (1985), Ito deals with forms which are pure and abstract. He strives to make building unique by playing with their surfaces, which, in his mind, according to Bognar (1985), â€Å"carry the meaning and the quality of space† (p. 323). The Glasgow School of Art Library was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who, having designed around the turn of the 20th Century, was considered one of the pioneers of modernism (Nuttgens, 1988). Each of these buildings have distinctive features, themes and ways of playing with light, and, in the case of Arets, sound. Each of these buildings resemble one another in critical ways, yet are different as well. This paper will explain the three buildings, their unifying principles and the way that they differ. University Library in Utrecht The qualities embraced by Arets are on display with the University Library in Utrecht. From the outside, at a glance, it appears to be box-like and black, and looks to have a strong aesthetic. The building is made almost entirely of glass, so it reflects the light and the environment. The facade, according to Beek (2005), consists of alternating opaque and transparent panels, glass and concrete. On the glass is printed jungle trees, while the jungle trees are etched, in relief, on the concrete portions of the facade. However, although the building is dark, it plays with light in different ways. McCarter (2012) explains that the building plays with light by alternating the panels of concrete and glass, and some of the glass panels are double paned and slightly off-kilter. This gives the building a three-dimensional effect, and also allows the sunlight to be filtered through and regulated. Between the panels shifting, the alternation between the concrete and the glass, and jungle patterns on the glass and concrete, the building plays with light in a way that is dynamic. Once inside, Beek (2005) describes the interio r as a contrast, as the floor is reflecting and white, and this contrasts with the dark concrete panels. Once the individual comes in through the main entrance, McCarter (2012), states that there is a gallery there, and this leads to a large staircase. The main idea is that the white reflecting floor, and the contrasting dark concrete, is repeated throughout the interior. When one reaches the first level, there is an atrium that is at full height. On the inside, one understands that there are spatial volumes which correspond with the solid outside walls. Meanwhile, the glass panels vertically close the facade line. Beek (2005) states that the interior of the library consists of lecture rooms, bookshelves and archives, all on different levels, and that each of the different levels have a different style. Some of the levels feature open terraces. Some feature rooms which are enclosed with balconies. One meeting room is cantilevered, and facing the atrium completely. There is some colo r inside, notably red, which is the color of some of the fixed furnitures. The textures and relief on the outside glass and concrete turn out to be functional, with regards to the acoustics and the light inside the building, according to Beek (2005). This is because the relief texture on the concrete absorbs the outside sounds. The glass imprintations regulates the sunlight. Therefore, the inside building is silent and open, because of this light and sound regulation. Therefore,

Lab#2 concrete mix design and compression tests Lab Report

#2 concrete mix design and compression tests - Lab Report Example Concrete quality control is an essential practice to ensure consistency in both the fresh and hardened concrete. Some of the laboratory methods used for concrete quality control include; slump test, compressive strength test and workability tests. The primary objective for this experimental study was to identify the characteristics exhibited by concrete materials and to familiarize with the commonly used laboratory specimen manufacturing and testing methods. In design and quality control of concrete, the most specified concrete property is strength. This can be attributed to the fact that testing methods available are relatively easy and furthermore; other concrete properties such as resistance to weathering and fire, elastic modulus, and impermeability are directly linked to strength. This means that having the strength data, then the other properties can be deduced. A good concrete mix should take into account the following key attributes: workability, consistency, strength, water cement ratio, durability, density, slump expected, and heat and chemical resistance. The relative proportions of concrete components, either by volume or weight, will closely influence its properties in both fresh and hardened state. The cement-water paste forms the active component in the concrete material, which is dependent on the characteristics of materials used and their relative proportions. The aggregates used must be well graded to minimize air voids in the concrete matrix. Generally, concrete mix designs are currently being over-designed for the fear of production of results that will not meet the minimum strength criteria specified by the engineer concerned. There is therefore need for analysis of concrete compressive strength variance and understanding of the criteria for proper concrete mix designs suitable for various applications. Concrete is a

A literature review. The purpose of such a characterization is to set Essay

A literature review. The purpose of such a characterization is to set up the need for your contribution. Summaries of a - Essay Example Amitai Etzioni asserts that regulations are the way to prevent an economic decline brought about by businesses. In terms of the consumer consumption, a culture change supersedes regulations, but it seems too difficult to develop such a change. Many Americans have continued to work hard to sustain their livelihoods in terms of reaching their wants. As he notes â€Å"what needs to be eradicated†¦ the obsession with acquisition that has become the organizing principle of American life† (Etzioni, 2012). People get to great length for the sole purpose of maximizing their earnings in an effort to meeting their physiological-motivated needs. The society has branded more money and more things to mean ‘good life’ when in real terms the struggles are too much compared to the benefits thereof. He continues to assert that the capitalism has been the key player in facilitating the consumer trends seen. However, capitalism cannot be solely blamed on the woes, what needs to be done is creating a balance between consumption and other engagements (Etzioni, 2012). The perception that increased income relates to increased happiness is misplaced and cannot hold. This is not an advocacy for laxity in striving to be economically stable, but a call for individuals to be cognizant of the need to regulate their consumption. Because of the perception taken against consumption, the public should be made to understand that manageable consumption could not be related to failure (Etzioni, 2013). On the other hand, Juliet Schor presents a view that consumption should be individualized and not be presented as a public affair. She talks about the misplaced thinking that prompts individuals to keep on spending. Her suggestions clearly depict a systematic approach to consumption. She notes that a decent living should be a factor of satisfying the needs and not the wants. In addition, she advocates that the focus should be to improve the quality of life and not a desire t o see the massive items all around them, pushing hard to belong to a consumption class is an irrelevant and displaced move. The consumption levels ought to be in a way that it encourages conservation of the ecology. Consumption also should be made to be free will without having influences from the producers and retailers (Schor, 1999). The two authors establish a common ground of argument. From their views, ‘political’ aspects in the consumption chain have hampered freedom of consumption. They strongly advocate for a change in consumption culture in an attempt to vary the current spending dynamics. Quality of life has also been emphasized; individuals should not only focus on earning and being reduced to shoppers who do not have even the time to do it. The little time available is fixed with one activity after the other. They also call for regulations through the government and the relevant stakeholders in order to create a need-related consumption. Revitalization of co nsumer and labor movements to focus on this hidden yet dangerous trend is an urgent need in an attempt to protect the consumers. At the end of their arguments, the suggestions provided are biased on cultural change among the consumers in order to prevent unnecessary hard work whose products are miserable spent in making acquisitions.

Police Accountability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Police Accountability - Essay Example As the paper declares abusive police behavior is conceived of as antithetical to the functioning of a modern, free society and the public has a natural right to seek arrests in instances of police abuse. Seeking to understand police accountability presently in place in Canada, the following essay will explore the mechanisms to keep police officers subject to the law which they are charged with upholding. What are the police accountability mechanisms presently in Canada and are these mechanisms effective? With the theme of exploring this question with an eye to the ramifications of police accountability and 21st century, the following now turns to an exploration of police accountability in the Canadian context. According to the discussion findings as stated above, police accountability is essential to the functioning of a modern and free democratic society. Accordingly, Canadian society is based upon the notion that power rests with the people in that elected officials are subservient to the electorate. This is the basis of modern liberal democratic governance and the tenets which frame the ideas of Canadians vis-Ã  -vis their elected officials are also relevant with respect to the security of the state. Similarly, those who are entrusted with upholding the law are subject to the stipulations of the criminal justice system and are held accountable for their actions in the pursuit of fairness, justice and equality. In the Canadian context, police officers are accountable to the wider public through a variety of mechanisms which are in place to ensure that police officers remain subject to the law while they seek to uphold it.

Equity and Debt Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Equity and Debt - Assignment Example The advantages of choosing equity financing reveal the compelling reasons why AMSC management felt the need to adopt floating shares in the market. Firstly, equity financing allowed the company to obtain a long-term relationship with investors ready to commit money in the company’s projects. Such an arrangement avoids short-term risks where the financial security offered by the funding party comes to an end after some time, such as in a loan agreement. Similarly, most investors in equity deals have preferences in the choice of projects to invest in, which attracts professional entrepreneurs. In this regard, equity relationships have safer business linkages by pulling passionate investors who add value in terms of business succession. Another advantage of equity financing relates to the overall reduction in outward cash-flow challenges that shrink liquidity. As opposed to debt financing, equity financing adds money to the business in the long-term, thereby reducing outflow challenges. Evans and Mellen (2010) noted a closely related advantage that touches on the long-term outcomes of additional investment without repayment obligations, which increases chances of growth. The long-term element of the equity relationship secures the growth prospects of a business as opposed to a debt that requires fixed repayment periods. Similarly, the investor bears the risk element of the investment made, which reduces the pressure of compulsory liability as seen in debt financing. The sharing outcomes of the partnership and shared ownership raises the confidence of the equity arrangement in facing risks. From these advantages, the management could have found grounds to make a decision to on engaging shareholders. As mentioned, equity financing also presents a fair share of disadvantages emanating from the opportunity cost against debt financing and other sources of capital. Firstly, equity financing implies

Multinational Expansion Of Companies Essay Example for Free

Multinational Expansion Of Companies Essay Ghe increasing multinational expansion of companies requires individuals who can perform effectively across national borders by handling cross national job assignments (Stahl Bjorkman 2006). Expatriates/international assignees are employees who work outside their national borders. A lot depends on human resource (HR) management in selecting appropriate workforce and rewarding them accordingly in company’s best interests. HR managers need to show expertise in choosing suitable personnel for international assignments based on employee’s personal characteristics, interests, overseas experience and the type international assignment. Moreover, it becomes the responsibility of HR managers to look after compensation packages, and compliance with regional work standards and government policies. Hence, it is necessary to review all these issues in detail to gain an idea on the role of HR professionals in relation to international assignees. Firstly, to understand the aspects of expatriate selection and functions, it is first necessary to review the reason for global expansion of companies and their requirements. Companies Go Global   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are various reasons for companies choosing international existence. They include increased pressure on costs, search for new markets, greater customer demands and product and service qualities, government policies, search and desire for technology development, worldwide communication and information flow, increasing global opportunities with interdependence of nations in trading blocs, integrating cultures and values leading to common consumer demands, availability of skilled workforce, decreasing trade barriers, and E-commerce (Briscoe Schuler 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This increasing globalization requires companies to look for employees with ability to operate at varied conditions. Accordingly, various criteria are set for the selection of international assignees. International assignees may be parent-country nationals (PCNs), host-country nationals (HCNs) or third-country nationals (TCNs) Selection of International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human resource (HR) managers have a major role in selecting international assignees. The highly followed selection process includes self-selection, creating a candidate pool, technical skills assessment and making a mutual decision (Frazee 1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HR management has to consider several criterion before selecting the candidates, such as candidate’s maturity, ability to handle foreign languages, possession of favorable outlook on the international assignment by the expatriate and his/her family (Briscoe Schuler 2004). Apart from these personal characteristics like health, desire for the assignment, individual resourcefulness and adaptability are very important.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International assignees should have various qualities such as computer literacy, prudent negotiating skills, ability as a change agent, visionary skills and effective delegatory skills (Briscoe Schuler 2004). Functions of International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The functions of international assignees may include all or any of the following areas depending on job responsibilities. Technical responsibilities Managerial responsibilities Cultural responsibilities such as interacting with local nationals and local communities In general, global long term assignments may vary between two and five years. In long term assignments employees are generally loaned to the host company by the home company (Mullaney 2007, p. 3). The position and seniority of the assignee often determine the nature of the assignment package. Executive assignees are seen as prominent members of the local management team, whereas assignees at manager level or below are credited with career development opportunity. An Insight on the Roles of HR Managers In the current globalization arena, the role of human resource (HR) personnel in relation to international assignments should be viewed in specific perspectives: human resource personnel and international assignees, and the role of past experience in dealing with diverse employees. Whatever the role is, the basic requirements are openness to people, flexibility, autonomy, and career motivation (Frazee, 1998, p. 29). Firstly, the phases in selection of international assignees can be described as self-selection, creation of a candidate pool, assessment of technical skills, and making a mutual decision. Firstly, the candidate has to self analyze whether he or she can be a global assignee. Moreover, the favorability of family and other conditions need to be evaluated. In selecting global assignees, it is better to opt for self-selection than traditional selection. While traditional selection in meant for choosing assignees by employers through various interviews and tests, self-selection promotes self-assessment of candidates and decide on whether or not to go for the next step for selection process (Frazee, 1998, p. 29). The factors of self-selection include personality and individual characteristics, career and family issues. According to Johns, in case of personnel who shift from another position to HR, the experience in past positions and the change of influencing abilities pertaining to the post may help perform better as a HR manager in dealing with employees from different backgrounds (as cited in Frazee, 1998, p. 52).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Furthermore, HR managers do have a major role in proper orientation of global assignees and making them adjust with new environment. Moreover, HR personnel need to evaluate the costs associated with expatriate programs. Finally, they may have to deal with situations where employees may rise about differences in compensation between local and global assignees. Requirements of International Business Management in the Context of HR Professional in Working with International Assignees In my opinion, such requirements as workforce planning and staffing, training and health safety, and Crisis Management are the central issues of international business management in the context of HR profession when working with international assignees. The most significant subject for planning of training for international assignees is the importance of understanding the restricted culture and language. The organization of the compensation programs for multiple workforces around the world is a compound and not an easy work that is put into effect with the help of the balance sheet approach.   Health and safety practices vary among countries as per related laws in those countries. However, HR managers should understand and cope with business decisions that are concerned with strategies, health and safety systems, and different practices faced in countries that may have an impact upon workforces and employee relations between international assignees. So, the requirements include learning the laws, systems of working and understanding the cultures of the countries. Global HR activities that involve preparation, scheming, structuring, implementing, organizing, or developing may be unsuccessful if they are used without considering the differences in countries. Successful processes and systems that are used in one country may fail when they are used in the same way in another one. All the aspects of the international business have a human element. The human recourse management was underestimated for a long time, but its functions and roles, nowadays, are accepted to be one of the most important. Nevertheless, ‘the HR professionals must first learn the geography and characteristics of the field’ (Ohmae, 1990). Potential Involvement of International HRM   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With the increasing human resource problems in the multinational companies due to increased global operations, it has become to necessary to redefine the scope and role of the human resource management.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International HRM should be involved as a active partner in formulating global strategies. Necessary skills need to be imparted into senior HR professional through proper training. HR professionals should lead developing processes and activities involving emerging strategies (Briscoe Schuler 2004, p. 398). Companies should facilitate the development of global strategies by finding out the skills necessary for management and employees, and a major role should be played by the HR department in accomplishing it (Briscoe Schuler 2004, p. 398). Enhanced interaction is essential among line management, HR personnel and workgroups. Moreover, it is better to decentralize the functions of the headquarters IHR departments. Also, main HR departments should assign basic administrative responsibilities to venders with expertise in HR activities, as the main departments will need to deal with many growing global responsibilities (Briscoe Schuler 2004, p. 398). Expatriate Performance, Training and Interactions Joint ventures and foreign subsidiaries are usually structured and organized much like their mother companies; the only distinction is that they have both expatriate and local managers. That’s why the international business operations are more difficult and have more complex structure than the domestic business operations. Regardless of the effectiveness or availability of Performance Management (PM) tools, expatriate PM success depends largely on the manager and expatriate in question: how well they both understand, internalize, and accept PM, and how skillful they are in its implementation. To this end, appropriate PM training should be available for all expatriates, including their superiors. (Johnson 2003). The high level of the performance management of the expatriate leads to improvements in their careers and company’s development.   The performance management system that is used in the global business includes a lot of areas of international human recourse management responsibility, such as evaluating foreign managers and international assignees for pay increases. However, one of the most important obstacles to the successful administration and progress of these managers and international assignees is the regular require of recognition of the value of their overseas experience and expatriation, in general, and the casualness with which companies often evaluate these international assignees foreign performance. Certainly, big enterprises that have a lot of overseas assignees and many foreign subsidiaries say that ‘most (83%) do not use performance management to measure international assignees success. And many (35%) dont use any type of measurement at all.’ (Andersen 1999, p. 18) One of the most important factors that influences upon the international assignees’ performance is the performance appraisal system of the company. However the correct and effective system of the performance appraisals is not an easy task even in the native country. The knowledge and the skills that have to be developed by the international assignees differ a lot from the abilities of the workers of the company that is located in the native country should have.   The international assignee and other foreign managers have to increase and make use of the knowledge that is necessary for any managerial assignment without any doubt. The requirement for more number of highly qualified human resource personnel has resulted in the need to use larger numbers of foreign nationals. ‘Most multinational firms favor hiring local nationals for foreign subsidiaries, home-country nationals at headquarters, and, where a regional organization exists, a mix of foreign and home-country managers for regional positions.’ (Johnson 2003) Thanks to such method of international HR management the ethnic groups unite usually varies with the environment of a firms business and with the product strategy. So, the role of the staff that works at the native country diminishes in the case of lowering the importance of the area expertise. The principal subject for a large amount of companies in the management of their international assignment system is the arrangement of the competing interests of the firm, international HR management, and the international assignees and family. The business that is concerned about its globalization requires fast deed in order to produce innovative revenues, and to direct the expenses and threats involved with doing that. International human resource department requires adequate lead time to discover and choose successful international assignees. As Ohmae (1990) writes ‘they need a low enough case load of international assignees to be able to provide good service; they want to be able to apply an effective process for selecting and developing quality of international assignees candidates; and they desire to be able to apply a consistent policy of treatment of international assignees.’ International assignees themselves, and their families, need sufficient compensation for the individual and profession sacrifice they make while they relocate; they would like their family concerns to be given essential priority; and they look ahead to   be able to come back to a profession promotion that   takes benefit of their foreign practice. So, the way to success in the global operations is to satisfy the needs of companies and the needs of international assignees. The role of international assignees is very significant; because whether the business strategy will be clear and understandable all over the world depend on their working performance. In order to improve the results of the work there are a large amount of programs that consist of relevance, acceptability, sensitivity and practicality. The factor of relevance means that the HR manager and the worker should realize the relevance of their labor in the general activity and to evaluate the situation correctly. Acceptability is the right evaluation of the job from the side of the HR manager and the diligent execution of the duties by the expatriate. It needs to be seen as fair, reasonable, and accurate. Sensitivity is the attitude of the administration that includes taking into consideration cultural differences and adequacy in evaluating the business reality. The fact that the programs should be practical for the expatriates is also important. They should correspond to the business strategy and be not difficult to execute but not to simple. In this case there is a threat that such program will be done partially. These entire characteristics have to be implemented by the HR managers and need special attention. Compensation for International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International HR department has to create compensation packages that appropriate for employees and profitable to the companies. The components of a balance sheet approach that are helpful in determining expatriate compensation are described below. Home-country salaries International standard Regional standard Better of home or host policy Expatriate Failures The three main reasons for expatriate failure are inappropriate selection, inadequate preparation and the stress associated with expatriation (Enderwick Dunning 1994). Proper training of expatriates before giving international assignments is necessary to overcome failure. All in all, performance of international assignees depends greatly on proper selection and training. Moreover, appropriate compensation packages are necessary. Women as International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Coming to the gender differences in international assignees, there are important aspects to consider. It has been observed that though the number of women employees is increasing over the years, they are not making a substantiate percentage in international assignments. To be precise, in spite of having 47% women workforce in the United States by 1998, only 13% to 14% were selected for international assignments (Varma et al. 2004). Also, in spite of having 30% female students in MBA programs in the US, only 14% are being selected by corporate America for international postings (Koretz, 1999).   Furthermore, the estimated number of female expatriates is between 2 and 5 percent only (Harris, 1993).There are multiple reasons for this scenario.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The important cause is the reluctance of management to send women employees abroad stating that they face more prejudice than men at the new workplace. Also, supervisor-subordinate relationship seems to be an important factor. It was found that female employees showed higher agreement with female supervisors than males (Varma et al. 2004). It becomes crucial, as most of cases require women to interact with male supervisors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Other related reasons can be explained such as over estimation of women’s problems at workplace by males, and lower availability of corporate development programs such as fast track programs, individual career counseling and career planning workshops for women. Further reasons include the traditional confinement of women to only certain job categories, socio-cultural issues of host countries and the problems of dual career couples. Conclusion In conclusion it is necessary to say that global HRM is more democratic than it was earlier. It provides employees with lots of opportunities and possibilities without paying attention to such factors as cultural characteristics or racial prejudices. Global HRM tries to present cultural diversity at all level of organizations. HRM model in public sector is characterized by lifetime employment, social cohesiveness and seniority wages. The vitality of organization is less important in the country that family ties and friendship. It is seen that GCC countries are not greatly influenced by globalization processes. Managers try to promote their relatives instead of teaching staff how to work. HRM model in the private sector is only on the evolution stage. It is still trying to find innovative ways how to manage the staff effectively. It is recommended for strategic human resource management of future to be characterized by cultural diversity and equal job opportunities for all people. HRM should use the concepts of globalization and labor division in order to achieve highest results. HRM should provide qualified employees with proper positions. Human resource managers should also have highest qualification and professionalism to achieve company’s goals and objectives. One more recommendation is to create more job places and to provide people with them. The cultural dimensions of power distance index, individualism, masculinity, uncertainly avoidance index and long-term orientation are necessary to be studied by the HR managers. The improvements of the programs that are aimed at the expatriate’s learning should include relevance, acceptability, sensitivity and practicality. As the result the production will increase as well as the organization’s revenue and profits. All in all, HR management has a great responsibility in company’s success pertaining to international assignments. They need to identify required personnel with adequate skills and experience to carry out international assignments. HR managers should plan proper reward packages to retain efficient employees on international assignments. Moreover, they need to adjust existing and adopt new policies in order to gain compliance with respective country’s policies and standards. Also, they are supposed to plan and implement relevant training for employees to perform effectively as international assignees. References 1998, ‘ROI on International Assignees’, HR Focus, Vol. 75, no. 3, p. S5. Briscoe, D. R. Schuler, R. 2004, International Human Resource Management, Second Edition, Routledge, London and New York. Budhwar, Pawan. Human Resource Management in Developing Countries. London:   Routledge. Chiavenato, Idalberto. 2001. â€Å"Advances and Challenges in Human Resource Management in the New Millennium†. Public Personnel Management, 30, pp. 17-25. Dunning, Joseph. 1999. Governments, Globalization and International Business. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Eaton, Jack 2000. â€Å"Transnational Companies, Globalization and Industrial†, Comparative Employment Relations, Cambridge, Polity Press. Enderwick, P. Dunning, J. H. 1994, Transnational Corporations and Human Resources, vol. 16, Routledge, New York. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘An HR Pro Forges a Well-rounded perspective’, Workforce, Vol. 77, no. 2, p. 52. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘No Common Thread in Expat Selection’, Workforce, 4, 4, p. 9. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘Selecting Global Assignees’, Workforce, 3, no. 4, pp. 28-30. Harris, H. 1993, ‘Women in international management: Opportunity or threat?’,Women in Management Review, 8, no. 5, pp. 9-14. Hofstede, Geert.1998. International and Cross-Cultural Management Research. Sage: Jean Claude Usunier. Iii, Edward E. Lawler. 2003. Creating a Strategic Human Resources Organization: An Assessment of Trends and New Directions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Johnson, David. 2003. International Business: Themes and Issues in the Modern Global Economy. London: Routledge. Kim, Pan Suk. 1999. â€Å"Globalization of Human Resource Management: A Cross-Cultural Perspective for the Public Sector†. Public Personnel Management, vol. 28, pp. 27-37 Koretz, G. 1999, ‘A Womans Place Is..  :Men Frown on Female Execs Abroad’, Business Week, 3646, no. 28, p. 28. Less Available to Female than to Male Expatriates?’, Journal of Business Ethics, 43, no.  ½, pp. 125-136. Mullaney, E. 2007, ‘Global Mobility in a Brave New World’, International Assignment Perspectives, PricewaterhouseCoopers, pp. 1-54. Ohmae, K. 1990. The Borderless World. New York: HarperCollins. Rowden, Robert W. 1999. â€Å"Potential Roles of the Human Resource Management Professional in the Strategic Planning Process†. SAM Advanced Management Journal, vol. 64, pp. 22-28. Selmer, J. and Leung, A. S. M. 2003, ‘Are Corporate Career Development Activities Sims, Ronald R 2002. Organizational Success through Effective Human Resources Management. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Solomon, C. M. 1997, ‘Destination U.S.A.’, Workforce, pp. 18-22. Sparrow, Paul, Brewster, Chris and Harris, Hilary. 2004 â€Å"Globalization and HRM†, Globalizing Human Resource Management, Oxon, Routledge. Spring, Joel. 1998. Education and the Rise of the Global Economy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Stahl, G. K. Bjorkman, I. 2006, Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management, Edward Elgar. Varma, A., Stroh, L. K. Schmitt, L. B. 2001, ‘Women and International Assignments:   The Impact of Supervisor-subordinate Relationships’, Journal of World Business, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 380-388.

Causes of Human Trafficking

Causes of Human Trafficking An examination of the issues and challenges of trafficking bring us face to face with the stark reality of the situation. Hordes of women and children are victims of grave human rights violation having been trafficked by vested interests using lure, deceit, compulsion, threat and coercion before being pushed into the gory world of CSE or other forms of bondage. They are subjected to physical and mental trauma, economic deprivation and violations of their dignity. The post trafficking scenario finds the victim at the end of the tunnel with almost no hope of survival. Vulnerability situations and gender discrimination have been facilitating and perpetuating trafficking. A few alarming trends that have emerged in recent years are sexual exploitation through sex tourism, paedophilia, prostitution in pilgrim towns and other tourist destinations and cross-border trafficking. Trafficking of women and children is definitely not a localised issue. There may be a few instances of trafficking within the community but it is largely a borderless crime transgressing the boundaries of police stations, districts, states, countries and regions. Over the years various countries in the South Asian region have emerged as sources, destinations and/or transit points. More so India has emerged as a source, destination and transit for trafficking for varied purposes such as for commercial sexual exploitation and labour. While intra-country trafficking forms the bulk of the trafficked victims, cross-border trafficking also takes place, especially from Nepal and Bangladesh. Women and children are also trafficked to the Middle Eastern countries and other parts of the world for purposes of cheap labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficking though not reported from many places happens everywhere. The situation is worse in underdeveloped regions. Here come into play the push and pull factors of trafficking and its interplay with the forces of demand and supply. For instance trafficking of women and children from the North-Eastern states of India and bordering countries, in both directions, is a serious issue. The long drawn extremist activities as well as the ethnic clashes and conflicts between several groups in this region have made women and children in the entire region highly vulnerable. Lack of infrastructural development and livelihood options have exacerbated the situation  [1]  . Since trafficking in this area cuts across different states and countries, it needs to be studied in detail and dealt with appropriately by the agencies of the Government of India, along with the state governments and appropriate NGOs working in this field. While the pull factors appear to be the dominant cause of trafficking, the push factors not only contribute to but exacerbate the situation. It is the economically backward and socially discriminated and deprived sections of society, who are the most vulnerable. Even among them the girl child is the worst hit as she is regarded as a liability. The gender discrimination prevalent in the social milieu and different forms of violence against women like infanticide, female foeticide adds to the vulnerability. This is further accentuated during periods of acute economic distress like drought, flood, food shortage, etc. The debt crisis due to economic deprivation as well as the collapse of social security systems has spurred migration, which has also eventually contributed to trafficking. That trafficking is a low-risk and high-profit venture is not doubted. A well established trafficker with many links may easily have an extremely profitable and safe business of trading in women and children, with an income running into several lakhs a year  [2]  . In comparison the earnings of the trafficked persons are a pittance. There appears to be no instance where illegal wealth amassed by the trafficker has been forfeited. Action on this front by all the governments is essential as a deterrent also since it is a source of black money in the economy. While exploring the links between migration and trafficking, it emerged that restrictions on womens migration, coupled with lack of protective measures increases their vulnerability to trafficking. Therefore, migration has to be understood and addressed from a developmental perspective; if trafficking is to be prevented. There is a strong linkage between migration with gender, development and good governance. A holistic approach, addressing all these dimensions, is called for. Safe migration, prevention of trafficking and containment of HIV/AIDS are central to the development the south Asian region. These are parameters having a direct bearing on public safety and, therefore, on national security. Anti trafficking strategies need to recognise peoples rights to move with informed choice. With the surge in tourism in several countries of South Asia, sex tourism and related trafficking has also gone up. The governments of many developing countries with a view to encouraging tourism and consequent economic development turn a blind eye to these problems. Undoubtedly, economic development cannot be at the cost of exploitation and trafficking. On the whole there is hardly any awareness or any conscious effort to address the issues concerned. The rehabilitative scenario presents a very dismal picture. More often than not, the efforts are disjointed and ad-hoc. There are no institutionalised mechanisms in most of the countries and states of India. The counselling and vocational training imparted in the rehabilitation homes are usually dictated by the availability of facilities and resources and not by the best interests of the victims. The needs of the rescued person need to be considered in a comprehensive manner. Along with psycho-social intervention, medical care, vocational training etc also have to be taken into account. Livelihood options have to be provided to the victims. Micro-credit and such other facilities need to be extended. Once rehabilitated a follow up mechanism needs to be in place to see that there is no retrafficking. There is a need to provide them access and awareness to such facilities through help lines, help kiosks, public awareness campaigns, etc. Trafficking of women and children has to be addressed in the specific context of the push factors in the concerned community. Since the exploiters take advantage of the helplessness of poor rural families, preventive action must necessarily involve empowering the powerless, especially in rural areas. Concerted efforts by the government, in cooperation with credible NGOs and PRIs can be helpful in achieving this. Thus an integrated approach involving the three components of à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  prevention, protection and prosecutionà ¯Ã‚ £Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  in effectively addressing trafficking is needed. Since trafficking is an organised crime, involving a multiplicity of actors linked together in a chain, professional methods of dealing with them are called for. Certainty and stringency of punishment of the exploiters, without any delay whatsoever, is the essential requirement for preventing trafficking. Simultaneously, the victims need to be rescued and rehabilitated in a sustainable manner. As lack of priority, time and sensitivity as well as ignorance of the issues concerned are commonly seen as the factors responsible for the present day dismal picture in enforcement, an effective networking of the law enforcement agencies with NGOs can make adequate dent in the given situation. The response scenario with respect to trans-border trafficking is fraught with innumerable challenges and problems. The nationality of the trafficked person often becomes a serious issue. Another issue with respect to trans-border trafficking is that of the procedures of repatriation. In fact, many rescued victims are confined to rescue homes for more than a decade despite the fact that they had to suffer exploitation in brothels for only a few months. The post-rescue non-rehabilitative scenario is not only traumatic but also violative of human rights. The problems are aggravated because the host country usually refuses to acknowledge the nationality of the person. In many instances, the victims are unable to recollect the details of their parentage and original village, causing difficulties in verification and authentication. Appropriate governmental systems are yet to take shape and become functional. This is an area that needs immediate attention. There is limited bilateral and re gional cooperation espically in relation to law enforcement, border interdiction, victim repatriation and prevention. There is a deficiency in collection, analysis and dissemination of trafficking data and information sharing. Trans-border bilateral arrangements are immediately called for to address these issues. It is high time that the concerned government agencies took initiative in this regard. For South Asia regional criminal justice cooperation is particularly important as much of the cross border trafficking that takes place is intra regional and currently there is no formal regional police arrangement (SAARCPOL) to combat such transnational crimes. The situation in the country presents a picture of lack of cohesion and coordination. Whether it is intra-state trafficking, inter-state trafficking or trans-border trafficking, the agencies involved in rescue do not seem to have any coordination with the agencies concerned with rehabilitation. The issue of missing women and children has been seen in isolation and was never seen in correlation with trafficking. There is no common platform linking up prevention strategies between source and destination areas. The absence of a national coordinating/monitoring agency has been a serious impediment in justice delivery and protection of human rights. Therefore, in order to ensure the best interests of the victims, to bring about effective coordination at the national level and to coordinate preventive strategies, programmes and polices, there is also a need for a national nodal agency to combat trafficking. The number of non-governmental organisations working in the field has increased enormously during the last few years. However, the vast majority of them are located in urban centres and very few have grassroots connections. There is a dire need for genuine and concerned NGOs to work on anti-trafficking in the rural areas, especially in the source and transit areas. Their synergy with the PRIs, can yield good dividends. Moreover the NGOs are mostly working on rescue and post-rescue activities, including protection and prosecution. There are very few NGOs which are focussed on prevention of trafficking. This area also craves for attention by the civil society. Trafficking of women and children is the ultimate violation of human rights, but on the other hand, the response of the government and non-governmental sector is more or less ad hoc and individual-oriented, and seldom institutionalised. The extent and depth of exploitation of the trafficked victims have never been fathomed by the agencies concerned and, therefore, the response scenario has been dismal. The study also shows that post-rescue programmes lack the essence of empowerment. The welfare approach, which is commonplace, has to be replaced by a rights-based approach, where the survivors, the victims as well as prospective victims (the vulnerable ones) should be involved not only in developing strategies but also in implementing them. A participatory and holistic approach can be in the best interests of the victim, survivor and all concerned. As is seen poverty and illiteracy are the main elements constituting the substratum for trafficking. Herein operates the demand factor. This demand is fuelled by several other factors like the impunity with which the traffickers can operate, thanks to the distortions in law enforcement. The low risk enjoyed by the exploiters, coupled with the high profit in this world of crass commercialisation, ensures perpetuation of trafficking. Whereas the traffickers have no restriction on court jurisdictions or the boundaries between police stations, districts, states, and even nations in carrying out their trade, the enforcement agencies are bogged down by restrictions and limitations of all sorts, which are effectively capitalised by the traffickers. The response by the government agencies and even civil society has established that they have been able to address only the tip of the iceberg. The trends and dimensions of the problem of trafficking has exposed how it is the ultimate human right s violation and how holistic developmental issues are deeply linked to it and which needed to be addressed for successfully combating the menace.